R E O White on Ethics

Review: R.E.O. White. Biblical Ethics: The Changing Continuity of Christian Ethics. vol. 1. Great Britain: The Paternoster Press, 1979.

Introduction

The focal question to this book is on the topic whether there is such thing as Christian ethic in a strict sense and where this ethic can be found. White mentions that: “To speak of ‘Christian’ ethics implies that the form exhibited, the norms observed, the presuppositions and ideals expressed in the behavior which Christians approved are related directly to what Christians believe about the world, about God, Christ, each other, the history of Christian salvation, the hope of eternal salvation”(8). In this case, the ethic mentioned is not static but dynamic. It connotes that Christians must avoid imposing on the biblical document a uniformity that it does possess by modern presuppositions. Nonetheless, Christian ethics must start with the Bible as a foundation for morality. But this does not mean biblical ethics is enough. “In fact, the Christian ethical heritage comes to us laden with the accommodations, developments, debates, disappointments, additional insights and unresolved questions, of generations of believers who have sought to apply the original vision to ever-changing situations” (10). Thus, Christian ethics is flexible since it is not based on the Scripture and history alone but also on Christ, the living Lord (11).

Legacies of Earlier Hebrew Religion

Christian ethics is directly related to the development of the ethical development of Judaism of which seven of its religious legacies are still utilized by Christian believers. (1) The theocratic approach where God is seen as one and only true God, powerful, moral, and free; he conceived as the God who expresses his loving-kindness, grace, goodness, and love. (2) The Decalogue that sets the tone of biblical ethics. (3) The Book of the Covenant that comprises social code of ordinances, exhortations, and warnings—including the lex taliones, justice, philanthropy, equity reinforced by piety. (4) The earlier prophetic teaching: Amos (justice), Hosea (love), Isaiah (holiness), Micah (mercy). (5) The Deuterenomic ideals in contrast to the pagan corruption and corruption. (6) The Later prophetic teaching: Jeremiah (inward transformation), Ezekiel (individual responsibility), Isaiah 40-66 (exultation and great hope upon the Servant of the Lord), and (7) the Code of Holiness based upon the holiness of Yahweh.

Legacies of Later Judaism

This legacy that contributed to Christian ethics includes (1) the piety of the Psalter founded upon God’s faithfulness and righteousness. The new ethical concept introduced by the Psalter is the notion of spiritual warfare and sect-type morality of the godly against the wicked. (2) The moral wisdom from the Wisdom School embedded in the book of Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus of Ben Sirach, Ecclesiastes, and Job. (3) The lengthened perspective in the hope of immortality, (4) the development of legalism among the Hasidim, Pharisees, and Rabbinic traditions, (5) the sects zealous for the Law like the Sadducees, Essenes, Qumran Covenanters who made amplifications on exacting standards, sect morality, and dualistic outlook, regulated community life. (6) The re-awakening of prophecy was spearheaded by John the Baptist as he prepared the way of the Lord Jesus Christ.

Jesus and His Jewish Inheritance

Jesus ethical teachings, in relation to John, however, made a different direction by rejecting “John’s picture of the Messiah with threshing-shovel, flail, axe and fire, bringing judgment”(52)—a rejection that led to John’s doubting to Jesus. Jesus also rejected John’s austerity and ascetism. And in relation to Judaism, Jesus made some negative reactions to pride and self-righteousness, hardness of heart, attitude towards women, exclusive nationalism, meritable reward by obedience, superficial considerations to the externals and the inadequacy of Judaism’s religious basis. The positive reactions, on the other hand, include the commendation on monotheism, fruition of Jewish piety in relation to Jewish prophecies, and some rabbinical ethics.

The Family of God and the Life of Sonship

The fundamental presupposition and framework of good life according to Jesus is sonship where in the family of God, the kingly father is present and prayer is the means of relational conversation and resource of moral renewal. The children of God have special privileges in their “implicit trust in the goodness of the Father”(68). Being sons of God, there is an implication of exalted motives and the expectation of reward as well as abundant life. The ethics of sonship carry with it obligations of imitating the Father; fellowship with the Father; loving and forgiving other members of the family; and living at peace with them.

The Kingdom of God and the Life of Obedience

The message of the kingdom of God is central to the teaching and ethics of Jesus. It is a religio-ethical ideal emphasized mostly in Jesus’ parables where humility is a must to attain entrance to God’s reign. The Laws of the kingdom is love God and neighbor. According to White, this law is an “art” of doing good in a personal relationship and “adventure” on which one reaches out to another person and be enriched. “Because the kingdom is inward, present, and ethical, it must govern all the life of its subjects, set within the society.” (84) “Jesus was a realist” (85) and he was not ignorant of the sins of the world that is why he did not trust himself to men. Many facets were related to the kingdom ethics. (1) Society’s ill—Christ’s alternative to lex taliones is non-resistance (Matt. 5:38-41) as well as suffering and exemplary life. (2) The Family—Christ valued family through monogamy, equality, sacredness of marriage and the seriousness of divorce. (3) Material wealth—Christ emphasized that God cares for the welfare of his people but aware of the spiritual dangers of material wealth and poverty. (4) The State—rendering what belongs to the kings. (5) Social legislation—Christ wants believers to be mindful of their civil responsibilities. (6) The wider world—believers ought not to be confined to their own nationalistic pride but reaches out to the lost in a global perspective. In the kingdom of God, the ruler looks in the heart where the inner thought and desire belongs. His kingly judgment covers all sins against love of others and God.

The Son of God and the Life of Imitation

Despite of the differing interpretations on the above mentioned factors that contributed to the basis of Christian conduct, “the imitation of Christ remains the heart of the Christian ethics” (109). First, devotion to Christ is a moral incentive based of the Son’s perfection, holiness, and example and indwelling upon the believer. Secondly, most of the Christian ideals are related upon Christ’s life, words and works. In the final analysis, the permanence and finality of Christ’s ethic “rests upon his Person.…He is the ideal in whom all women can see the true version of that moral humanity in which manhood and womanhood alike can find their goal, and have done so”(122).

Ethics in the Primitive Church

Christian faith and obedience rested upon oral traditions for some twenty five years concerning Jesus words and works (125). “The first Christians had faithfully learned the realism of Jesus”(126). They were ardent in expressing the love of Christ and serving others. Through the Lukan perspective, most of the exemplary deeds of the Christ’s disciples are manifested in their community life and in persecutions where they reached out to the needy people. Another source of ethical information is the primitive catechesis of the church already known to the epistle readers of Rom 6:17, 16:17, 1 Cor 15f, 11:23, 1 Thes 4:1,2, 2 Thes 2:15, 3:6, Acts 23:25 etc.

Pauline Moral Theology

Even if Paul is a close follower of his Master, he also brought his own ethical insights, training, experience, and emphasis to his interpretations of the common teachings of the primitive church. “He was no more a systematic moralist than a systematic theologian”(134). It is manifested in the following: (1) His moral psychology consists of ethical interpretations concerning the concept of the “flesh” (sarx) in relation to the “soma” and “pneuma”; the human spirit where man “is a moral creature”(139). (2) His presuppositions show that all theology possessed ethical implications. Universal failure, for example, alienates man from God. The Divine reaction reveals wrath and righteousness of God in sending the Son to be crucified for the sin of humanity. Repentance, faith, and salvation embodies the Christian person where “the Christian ethic is the ethic implied in the process of salvation”(147). Here, the (3) redemption as moral transformation is indeed a moral concept. Faith and work is not a contradicting principle in producing a new moral person under the Lordship of Christ becoming like Him.

Paul’s Ethical Directives

Paul is also an apostle of love. “[T]o love is enough,” (160) says White based upon Pauline ethical interpretations. As an individual, an ethical Christian follows three themes: (1) Mental life and quality must have “the ability to discern God’s will”(162). (2) The discipline of sanctification requires purity motivated by personal sacredness through the Spirit’s indwelling. (3) And the Christian consecration for Christ must be expressed in servanthood and love. In relation to family and home, Pauline new life is manifested in the sacredness of marriage and realistic circumstances. Reciprocal obligations are covered among the members of the family (husband, wife, and children) under the Lordship of Christ. Mutual respect, equality of spiritual status, and submission are essentials. In daily work, honesty, and fairness are required. In the church, worship-attendance, unity in faith, fellowship, and other church responsibilities are given. In relation to the state, a Christian remained also a citizen of a local state and must live a moral life within, to, and from the society.

Petrine Counsels

Three prevailing ethical themes are found in the Petrine exhortations. (1) Subordination applied to civic relationships, masters, wives, and the church are part of Christian ethics. (2) The imitation of Christ in humility and perseverance in the midst of trials are becoming. (3) Well-doing and holiness are tied up together as an expression of kindness, social usefulness, and open heart to the needy as well as the Christian’s priestly service to God. These, with other minor ethical elements comprises Petrine ethic.

Johannine Rigour

Love is the central motif of the fourth gospel. When Christian ethic was threatened by Gnosticism’s dualistic concept John defined sin, not as matter but, as lawlessness in the first epistle. Love is more than just intellectualism and passive piety. Love is the proof of God’s presence in a person’s heart and mind. Accordingly, Johannine rigour refers to his bold summary “God Himself is love”(200). This summary is a “fairly complete exposition of Christian moral law”(201). John’s demand to tests always any religious experience by its ethical and social consequences are timeless suggestions.

“Sub-Apostolic” Discipline

Faith, resolution, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godliness, brotherly/Christlike love, etc. are ethical essentials belonging to sub-apostolic discipline. There is always a relationship between sound doctrine and right conduct. Even the gospels, laws can never be interpreted apart from the perspective of Christ and his ethical teachings. It is only fitting that the Bible closes with the book of Revelation were the ultimate goal of redemption is presented in the light of the hope found in Christ the Lord.

Looking Backwards—and Forwards

In summary, the religious roots of Christian ethics are based upon the nature of God. With the focus on Christ, the identification of the moral ideal with a historical person is a unique contribution to ethical realm. With its authentic motives and theories translated in a real human life, the potential and power of the gospel for salvation is a significant element for morality.

Response: This is a systematic and easy to follow material.

Questions: What makes Christian ethics really admirable? How important is right doctrine to right behavior?

God’s Governance

Review: William C. Placher. A History of Christian Theology: An Introduction. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Westminster Press, 1983. pp. 219-236.

The context of this historical development is taken from end of the 16^th ca. Luther’s influence spread throughout some areas of Germany and all of Scandinavia but Italy, Spain, most of Eastern Europe and France were still loyal to the pope. Nonetheless, parts of Germany, Scotland, England, Switzerland, and Netherlands experienced religious reformations. Among the noted theologians in the reformed tradition, Calvin is at the pedestal.

Calvin

Calvin was privileged to be born in a middle-class French family who afforded his studies in Paris. He joined a circle of French humanists before he became a Protestant and was acquainted with talking about God rather than about himself. Since France’s papal loyalty posed a threat to Protestants, he left to seek a life of a scholar. Along the way, he passed through Geneva with no intention of staying. But the leaders of this newly reformed city urged him to stay for long to provide a solid theology and political leadership, even to the point of cursing him if ever he fails to do his duty. Calvin was convinced and set out to modify their liturgy, ethics, and confessions. Later, he was questioned by a prominent citizen. He was then forced to leave the city. Yet after three years, the Catholic threat upon the city compelled them to call back Calvin (219-20).

Calvin is a strong systematician of Christian faith. His attempt to interdependently understand God and humanity is forceful. The emphasis on God’s glory and the severe effect of sin upon man’s quest for knowledge of God was turned out upon idols that prevented man from seeing the world in the right perspective. The role of the Scriptures, therefore, is important as a sole guide in understanding God and humanity. The details in the Bible may not be accurate, but it is authoritative in matters of faith. Faith is not mere belief in the reality of God and facts about Christ, but it is life changing. Calvin’s faith is Christ-centered. His emphasis on the Law is its value on shaping and molding moral ethics and not just to convict humanity of sin and restrict them from harming others. The law is not a means to salvation for only God’s grace makes it possible and good works should be acts of gratitude. A person is justified first before being sanctified (220-21).

It should be noted that Calvin’s doctrine of predestination is not the central perspective of his theology but he did believe in double predestination. While all men deserves damnation, God’s will to choose few to be saved by his grace can never be unfair and only God knows the reason why only some. Calvin refused to explain the assurance of salvation. His main interest is the glory of God rather than soteriology (222).

Calvin’s stance on the church and the Christian state is of mutual cooperation to check out the moral of the citizens, especially those who are partaking the communion that they may not dishonor Christ, the head of the church. Martin Bucer’s influence on Calvin’s theology is clear. Concerning the presence of Christ in the bread and wine, Calvin theorized that it is the spirit of man that receives the body and blood. He dwells between Zwingli’s symbolic and Luther’s literal interpretation of the presence of Christ in the elements. His theories of church organization utilizes four kinds of officials—i.e., the ministers (for Bible study and theological discourse), teachers, elders (for government and morals), and deacons (for charity). The regular gathering of consistory or presbytery is the real authority in appropriately dealing erring members. The criminal law and moral legislation are executed only by the city government (223-24).

Two Calvinists: Knox and Arminius

Calvin’s stance on civil obedience to constituted authority is conditional. Citizens can obey their Catholic kings, but if the demands are to make them betray their faith, people can disobey even with the help human rights tribunal (224). But in Scotland, John Knox was struggling with the corrupt church and government. He was jailed as a galley slave by the Catholic Church for two years and became impatient with Calvin’s principle on obedience to ungodly kings and rulers. For him, Christians ought to oppose corrupt government (225).

Calvin’s doctrine of predestination suffered negative feedback in Holland. When Calvinism became the official religion, people began to lax in their zeal for good works and prayers just because they felt they are not predestined to do so. Jacob Arminius began to find fault in Calvin’s claim that God determines who will accept grace and who will reject it. After Arminius’ death, his theology was set forth by his followers (Remonstrants) claiming that Christ died for all and God’s grace is offered to all. Some people can reject it, thus, grace is not irresistible. The Calvinists in Europe laid their five basic principles (Unconditional election, limited atonement, total depravity, irresistible grace, and the perseverance of saints) at the Synod of Dort (1619) and they condemned Arminius and his followers (226-27).

Reformation in England

Wyclif’s reform was not totally eradicated after his death. It was even supported by the reforms that came from the Protestants. Henry VIII wanted a divorce, but the pope did not grant it. In 1530, he cut off his relations to the pope and declared himself head of the Church of England. Monarchial theology became infectious in the church’s system. When Edward VI inherited the throne, Calvinist influence grew in their theology, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, was responsible in writing the Common Book of Prayer. He was more interested in the history of liturgy than in theology. But when Mary took over the throne, she returned England to Catholicism. Cranmer was forced to recant his Protestant faith. He was burned at stake when he recanted his recantation; more Protestants were persecuted during Mary’s rule of England (227-28).

In 1558, Elizabeth secured the kingdom for Protestants. The Church of England adopted in 1571 the Thirty-nine Articles with some compromise on the doctrine of (double) predestination. Transubstantiation was rejected and the real presence of Christ’s body and blood was reaffirmed. Anglican faith lies in between the extreme Catholics and hyper-Calvinists. They moderate theology and polity clearly indicates rejection also of the pope’s authority in favor for the Scripture, but their interpretations were taken from previous Christian interpreters of Christian faith. Their theological debate was more focused on liturgical issues; thus, English theology remained vague (228).

From Puritans to Quakers

Purification of the church and theological ambiguity were main concerns for the Puritans. They were more emphatic on avoiding liturgical elements in worship that was never clearly mentioned by the Scripture, such as kneeling, elaborate vestments and stained windows. In polity, they favored the presbyters rather than the bishops who stood superior to any other Christians. Instead of liturgical elaboration, their emphasis was more experiential and religious piety among ministers. Godly character, thriftiness, and hard work were main virtues their ministers were to uphold; thus, material success was often associated with sign of grace in their divine appointed career (229-30).

Varieties were found among the Puritans in general. On church polity, they attempted to appeal on the NT pattern of church liturgical service, but it was in vain for there was no clear ways on how the NT church did their ceremonies. And some Puritans tried to hold their ceremonies against the traditional structure of the Catholic Church. They also wanted to read the Scriptures apart from any influence of traditional assumptions. They reacted to the corrupt church and tolerated reformed bishops. But most Puritans have different views on church polity, infant baptism, and communal practices. R. Baxter, for instance, accepted open communion for those who live godly lives. Placher notes that today’s Baptists and their emphasis on adult baptism were originated from the Radical Puritans (230-31).

Evidently, The Westminster Confession was a manifestation of theology mixed up with politics. This attempt to formulate a statement of faith for England has been embraced by Scottish and American Presbyterians. With the influence of Oliver Cromwell, religious toleration of all Protestant groups was materialized. Each congregation was considered independent. Sooner, other religious groups, like the Levelers, began to appear and emphasized economic application of their theological interpretations. Religious authority became so vague due to the toleration. The moderate and radical Puritans were divided. The radicals became experiential in their emphasis while the moderates were emphatic on the authority of the Scriptures. Among the inner-experience group of Puritans that lasted were the Quakers (Society of Friends) who came from the Ranters—a group of wandering preachers against the established moderate Puritans. Their leader, George Fox, call the people a church rather than the building (232).

Early Quakers have different practices and religious experiences which were mystical. They appealed to the Inner Light rather than the Scripture. For them, real conversion brings assurance of salvation and freedom from moral failures. Social protests were made by walking naked to urge for repentance while some have dramatic trembling that earned them their reputation. They hold to equality of men (rich or poor and men or women) but refused to remove their hat before social authorities. They denied the bodily resurrection after death. They also believed on the right of women to preach be missionaries. But their desire to reform their society was a failure (232-33).

Several tensions are clear. With the rise of John Calvin, conflict with the Catholic Church was still present. The tension between the church and city-states are sometimes threatening and fatal. Calvin’s doctrinal formulation on predestination aroused issues on salvation but there was no tension between grace and works for works were affirmed as a product of salvation, not means for salvation. Calvin may have found himself reacting against Catholicism but his reform became structuralized. Arminius, perhaps a true Calvinist, was condemned due to his attempt to re-interpret what Calvin taught. It was a sad reality when reformation ceased to be redemptive, but became oppressive.

The reformed structure was challenged by the Spirit through the movement of the Puritans. In their varieties of beliefs and practices, their emphasis to the Spirit or inner voice is reactionary to the deformed structure of Reformation.

Cultural Engagement

Since American Evangelicalism arrived in the Philippines, the tradition was established. The imported reputation of the new “religious” movement has been slowly accepted by Filipinos. But never was the Evangelical movement identified as a Filipino movement. Since evangelical missionaries arrived in the Philippines, some Filipino concepts on Christianity has changed. They began to think of bungalow-type church designs, hospitals with airstrips, and dorms made in USA. The liturgy became programmatic and the hymns and preaching were the type of propositional expository, at least more sophisticated than that of the Catholic homily and Latin oracles. Evangelical services have done away with the elaborate ceremonies but have come to accept the formal rendering of worship (It always gave me a grin to see my predecessors wearing coat and tie in those days with hair coated with coconut oil and suave).

Evangelicalism is also known for their emphasis on the “evangel” among Filipinos, especially on the Catholics. If there were a group of people that were mostly “converts” to evangelical movement, certainly they were Catholics. In a sense, the crusades and the Four Spiritual Laws were not to “Christianize” Filipinos but, to “evangelicalize” them. The evangelist does the talking while others do the picture taking. (At least, missions has been reputed before as a good source for income; more pictures, more support. Some missionaries lived in mansions and their pastors-contacts are in nipa hut.) While it is true that there were many who came to know the saving knowledge of Jesus (with dates of course as to when or else you will be dealt with accordingly again), most were not able to identify themselves as Filipino Christians.

Most of evangelical Filipinos wear multi-colored dress with foreign designs that does not truly represents their faith. Some have American suits, Japanese-Chinese inner long-sleeve, a Spanish pant, animist underwear, and a Filipino heart. Often, Filipinos are like chameleons that blend cunningly with other environments but one thing they will never escape, they will always look, see, behave, and think like who they are. Among the common people, evangelicalism—with their treatment on the significance of salvation over Jesus—will always have the tendency to have a foreign taste that can be added among the religious alternatives. As long as the proposition is the overarching principle rather than the person, a theological discrepancy is always in visage.

Lately, when evangelicalism was so comfortable in their four-corners of formality and doctrinal superiority, the Spirit’s movement created a tension on the structure that evangelical Christians built. The charismatic movement was treated with eternal suspicions; in fact, some of their practices were attributed to the works of the devil by some notorious fundamentalists. To some extent, there were some converts who easily applied their manly works to that of the Spirit also. Their gullibility has led them for abuse of power, trust, and freedom. But this new charismatic wine was not suited without tremendous tension in the old evangelical wineskins. Some evangelical churches were divided (of course, Filipino Baptist churches are known for their multiplication by division). But in most cases, the split that holds a more charismatic spirit is more fruitful and passionate in their zeal for Christian living. A distinction can be made. Evangelical churches have the truth, but evangelical charismatic churches have the truth as well as “power.”

Nothing is more serious today than the tension that the Spirit has created against the evangelical structure. Most evangelical pastors now are having a serous reconsideration on the significance of the Spirit’s power in their pursuit for church growth. Many pastors are tired already of plodding against the grind of frameworks that doesn’t workout—although some frameworks are made by bored (not board) members and deacons. Some evangelical pastors were still holding to their conservative leanings by appealing to the Scriptures but most of their arguments against the Spirit’s moving in other churches are arguments out of silence.

Questions

How is the Spirit’s tension felt in your local context of framework?

How should the Scripture be used concerning inner voices and Spirit’s activities in the church today?

A Practical Handbook for Ministry

Language is powerful; so is the ability to speak. It has the power to heal or hurt, build or break, comfort or confuse. Hence, the role of the pastor as translator and interpreter of people’s stories is very crucial in the ministry. The words used to edify people must be clear and meaningful (3-4). Wayne Oates says about some misconceptions on temptation and sin. Failure to distinguish the difference between the two has caused obscurity on some people. The Christian understanding about temptation as a “universal human experience” has something to do with human defense mechanism, fantasy formation, and reaction formation where temptation is not sin per se but a state of sin whereby the tempted is faced with a crucial decision to cling or avoid temptation as a part of self-understanding. “Self-understanding,” Oates says, “comes from knowing what you are thinking and doing what your purpose to do under God, not being drawn by your own fantasies”(7).

Feeling of abandonment can be fatal and depressing; it is the feeling of abandonment by God that draws a person to be psychologically orphaned—sometimes guilty. Several views about sin were also analyzed: sin as complexes, as unfitting, as cowardice, as shrinking back, refusing to grow, as impaired judgment, as bondage of the law, as idolatry, as self-elevation, as destruction of creation, as missing the mark, and as violation of a covenant with God. In many ways, Christian ministers are called to be “articulate and redemptive in the exercise of its covenantal nature”—and not to be secularized in their attempt to minister unto the hurting and wounded (15).

The Ministry of the pastor does not involved verbal communication but also of pastoral identity and integrity. With various works and functions to fulfill, the Christian minister ought to discern and follow closely his call to educate the community of God through integrating pastoral care in teaching, preaching, administration, worship, and caring fellowship (23). In such as way, the health of the church is taken cared harmonically. The sense of commitment, self-awareness, self-transcendence and openness are all centered upon instruction in the church. All of these aspects are relational components to a healthy community of God (37).

It should be noted that there are different levels of pastoral care and relationships in the ministry. Oates argued, “Every pastor needs to know what to do when called upon for more complex and detailed pastoral counseling which might be characterized as one of the ‘nonmedical forms of psychoteraphy’”(42). As a nonspecialist, the pastor’s ministry cannot do away with caring for the members. As an overview, Oates specified the level of friendship, comfort, confession, and teaching as integral to pastoral counseling. The pastor as a friend needs not to be in contempt but also observes a degree of detachment to maintain relational balance, especially when there is “triangling” of opposing relationships (45-7). The pastor on the level of comfort deals with bereaved persons, dying, chronically ill, handicapped, parents of deformed and mentally ill, mentally depressed person, disappointed lovers, etc. As a comforter, the minister reminds the hurting of God’s presence and reassurance (50). The ministry of prayer ought to be appropriate, brief, relaxed, and supportive (52-3). In every aspect of pastoral ministry, there is a high degree that pastoral care is present.

Review: Thomas W. Chapman, ed., A Practical Handbook for Ministry: From the Writings of Wayne Oates (Louisville, KN: Westminster Press/John Knox Press, 1992), 3-63.