J. Philip Wogaman. Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction. Louisville, Kentucky: John Knox Press, 1993. pp.1-145.
Summary of the Book
Legacies of Christian Ethics. This book is about the historical development of tracing the important themes and methodology in Christian ethics and its contribution to the world. Initially, “The New Testament, as the product of earliest Christian thought and tradition, is itself a part of the history of Christian ethics.”(1) But somehow, the evolving story of Christian ethics did not end there.
The Biblical Legacy of Christian Ethics. Considering the production development of the Bible, with various historical periods, settings, and literary genres in more than a thousand years, biblical scholars today are better-off to speak of diversity than of unity in the Scriptures. In other words, the Bible does not have a single theology but theologies or ethical perspective but ethical perspectives by letting the text speak for itself. But others are not just contented of treating the Bible as mere collections of diverse writings but it must have a core unity as basis for it canonization for dealing theological and ethical conflicts. Here, Wogaman tries to settle first the tensions involved rather than taking side which is which is in better shape to stand for the legacy of Christian ethics.
The six biblical points of tensions are: 1) Revelation vs. Reason. This tensions deals with the question of the basis of moral claims. Revelation is exclusive given to persons in the community of faith as in the case of the early OT characters receiving direct, special revelation from God. But biblical stories appeal to reason also as in the case of Wisdom tradition and Hellenistic influence in the Johannine and Pauline stories. 2) Materialism vs. the Life of the Spirit. Anchored in tradition of creation as “good” and many substantial providential teaching of the Bible, the “spiritual” emphasis of life in the Spirit is in constant tension with created, physical, and sensual existence. 3) Universalism vs. Group Identity. The election of Israel or Christians is exclusive identity, though many prophets and apostles’ missionary emphasis are global. 4) Grace vs. Law. The moral laws of Israel and Christ’s emphasis on grace created tensions in ethics. 5) Love vs. Force. Political obedience, lex taliones, and military involvement intensifies against pacifism and love. 6) Status vs. Equality. Wealthy and poor, surely, are in dire contrast to equality and distribution of material blessing and ethical responsibilities.
Philosophical Legacies. Christian ethics in formation assessed in relation to the prevailing philosophies in the past is inevitable. It includes the philosophies of Socrates through Plato’s Apology. Critical reflection is important in human values and virtues. For Plato, truth is universal and eternal. He classified society to three: the artisans, the guardians, and the thinkers representing the three faculties of human psyche namely the appetitive, the spirited, and the rational. Values correspond to the human faculties and the state governed by reason or “philosopher kings.” Moreover, Aristotle’s social and political ideals are reflections of human nature as social and political beings. Stoicism and Epicureanism are remarkably not out of sight in the biblical perspective. But the influence of Greek philosophies are not to be overstated according Wogaman though it certainly helped the ethical formation of the New Testament.
The Ethics of Early Christianity. Multifaceted aspects of ordinary life were in tension in the early Christians of which they were obliged to respond in the situation.
The Formative Years. The attitude of the earliest Christians towards the world is definitively divided: others are in the world but not to live according to the evil systems of the world. Some of the major issues they need to respond are the value of: 1) Wealth and poverty that contributed to the issues on status, slavery, institutional sharing addressed by early Christian writings like Didache, Clement, and Shepherd of Hermas. 2) Sexual ethics that values the sacredness of marriage and purity in relationship. 3) The status and role of women as humanly treated in contrast to the frequent use of male gender in reference to God as Father, Him, etc. 4) Violence and the Political Order divides positions of early Christians in their involvement in war and civil obedience or live in peace and harmony. In all these major social issues, early Christians are not wholly in conformity to the moral rhetoric but lived authentic lives despite of diversities.
Seminal Thinkers and Transitions. Here, the Alexandrians in particular, helped advanced Christian ethics. To Clement, there is no necessary conflict between reason and faith since truth is one. He deals more on the theological and ethical stance concerning wealth where the problem lies not on the material thing itself but on the attitude towards it. Alexandrian leaders utilized classical traditions also in their ethical expositions. Tertullian, in his later ethical standard, held a stricter code of holiness in accordance to Montanists norm. Other formative thinkers include Lactantius (Social justice and activities based upon the centrality of the concept of God as the divine parent of all humanity), Basil (economic values in relation to the poor and against usury), Gregory of Nyssa (rejection of slavery in based on God’s creation of man in his image), Chrysostom (condemnation of unshared wealth), and Ambrose (Justice based on communitarian concept; violence to defend others but refection of violent self-defense).
The Moral Vision of Saint Augustine. The moral will is the source of all evil, according to Augustine, for it is the will that directs the person away from God and towards evil perceived to be good. Thus sin is an intellectual error and misdirection of the will. It is the moral will that is the ground of Christian ethics. On his The City of God in contrast to the city of earth, the moral is driven by love of God, not of self. For him, ethical diversities are complementary for good as long as they are affirmed through God in a universal church setting. Peace is the universal goal of mankind and must be defined by justice. He also provided the doctrine of “Just War” as a moral exception justified by the injustice or heresy of an aggressor. On human sexuality, it is condemnable aside from procreation purposes. Lastly, on the use of riches, it is commendable and enjoyment of riches is rejected for it involves affection towards a material creation.
Medieval Christianity. Remarkably, Christianity had an immense influence in Europe due to its attachment to Roman civilization.
Monastic and Mystical Contributions. Christian morality was somehow shaped in connection to monasticism’s via negativa of renunciation. Influence of Anthony of Egypt and Simeon Stylites, to some extent, Basil of Ceasarea (community monk) and Augustine, flourished as they removed themselves from community life into solitary places. Medieval monasticism is heavily influenced by Benedict of Nursia’ monastic Rule. It includes absolute obedience to superiors, setting aside self-will, humility, etc. But monastic life posits paradoxes, i.e. monastic or inferiority discipline identified with humility,; spiritual elitism and unity of the church; salvation through monastic life; vow of poverty yet possessing immense wealth; and withdrawal and service to the world. The monastic ideal of women also invites paradoxical questions; they were excluded from priesthood but exhibited leadership skills yet remain secondary in status. So far, the mystical contributions of the medieval mystics include the importance of love as a manifestation of ethics (Bernard of Clairvaux) and integral relationship with others while living in communion with God, the ground for morality (Catherine of Siena). But it also encourages careful examination of the basic motives. Their moral judgment, to some extent, is basically intuitive, of course with the influence of their religious orientations.
The Confessional. The development of elaborate confession and penance in the church institution, stricter discipline among adherents became influential and oppressive in Europe. Sins have severe penalties as stated in the penitential books. Salvation and damnation depends upon confessions. As a consequence, ethics is not so much on what good is to be embraced but on what evil is to be avoided. Penitential system is so abusive and crude.
The Thomistic Synthesis. With the surging intellectual renewal, Thomas Aquinas created a new Aristotelian synthesis shaped with Augustinian principles, monastic discipline, and evolving conception of church and sacraments. Ethical stance is seen according to the true end (telos) and of its potentiality. Evil is defined to deviance from the original purpose of being. Cardinal virtues, according to Aquinas, are prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude; derived from classical tradition and the three theological virtues are faith, hope and love which are dependent upon God’s acts. On moral law, Aquinas defined eternal law as the ultimate form of law through its effects in the natural law. Some of the social matters addressed by Thomistic ethics are: Social ethics (emphasis of teleological view), Political ethic (hierarchical conceptions based upon the end goal), just war (as necessary evil presupposed under a sovereign authority and just cause), Economics (property based on natural law), Sex and Gender (necessitated by subjection according to hierarchical concept). Ultimately, the church institution plays a governing role in his synthesis of teleological concepts.
Late Medieval Forerunners. Among the late medieval figures that shaped the ethical norms that challenged the Catholic Church are: 1) Dante Alighiere (1265-1321), the greatest poet of medieval times who wrote Divine Comedy. His support to monarchial authority as directly given from God shook the church hierarchical claims of authority and the Pope. 2) Marsilius of Padua (1280?-1343?) advocates the primacy of the temporal over spiritual, sovereignty of citizens, and independent power of state from church control. 3) John Hus (1372?-1415) challenged the authority of the Pope through the primacy of the scripture. 4) The Conciliar Movement rode with the Papal schism by establishing their own authority. And 5) Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) and his The Prince invokes political power through the general support apart from or with traditional or church legitimacy. Fear must prevail instead of love in terms of power control. Morality and religiousness must appear but not necessarily held.
The Era of Reformation and Enlightenment.
The Reformers: Luther and Calvin. Luther’s ethical concepts are focused on Christian liberty based upon the free salvation by faith. External precepts and laws are not the guiding principles. This kind of morality is lived by those who are in the kingdom of God, not of the world. Meanwhile, Calvin based his ethical norms upon the sovereignty of God thus moral effort are responses to the grace of God, i.e. worship, glorify and do the will of God. The love of God is everything and human effort is nothing. Both of them liberated ethics from ecclesial control. Vocation and stewardship are entrusted by God and must be used for God. Both showed support to existing ruling authorities but with reservation on issues on war.
Catholic Humanism and Counter-Reformation. Erasmus (1466-1536) represents the new Catholic humanism. For him, values and ethical insights are to be derived from universal human experience. Thus, he is opposed to dogmatisms of theological reformation, including the abuse of Luther and Calvin in their usurpation of Christ’s authority. Also Thomas Moore’s expression of Christianity is basically ethical manifestation of universal truths represented by religion(s) and philosophy. The Catholic’s counter-reformation and the council of Trent reasserted the importance of works, tradition, and sacraments beside faith for the salvation of adherents. Somehow, RCC’s moral theology includes the controversy over “probabilism” which refers to questions on moral judgment on uncertain and doubtful cases like just wars and pacifism, and other ambiguous situations. Some argued the most probable is the right thing to follow (probabiliorism). But the Jesuits followed more Augustinian principles in their moral theology through Francisco de Suarez.
The Radical Reformation. In response, the Anabaptists’ renunciation of the world clings to the rites of baptism as moral foundation of faith and practice. Their concept of discipleship was strict within their community; they were committed to pacifism and peaceful living. The Quakers’ Rules of Discipline are more tolerant on other religions since they perceived that everyone has inner light to perceive the truth. Moral truth is through intuition. Lastly, the English religio-political movement of “Levellers” and “Diggers” (1646-49) was short-lived. Levellers justified their political stance by natural law arguments, primarily Stoicism. Diggers resisted the suppression of common people in availing properties like lands from the nobilities. But some of their leaders founded their ethical grounds upon mystical experience. Questions on reason and theological visions were raised in organizing life.
Response: If Placher is to Christian Theology, Wogaman is to Christian Ethics. He presents the evolution of the ground for ethical judgment in Christian world.
Questions: What is the relationship between Christian ethics and natural laws? How about intuition? And objectivity?
